An agent is morally responsible for performing a given act A only if he or she could have done otherwise. If the government should decide in favor of an early demonstration of nuclear weapons, it will then have the possibility of taking into account the public opinion of this country and of the other nations before deciding whether these weapons should be used against Japan. In both (1) and (2), S is morally responsible for E in W2 because, within each scenario, S satisfies PAP(s) in W2; and, as we have seen, PAP(s) provides sufficient justification for the ascription of moral responsibility. We hope that the creation of the Committee by the Secretary of War to deal with all aspects of nucleonics, indicates that these implications have been recognized by the government. We have to be careful, of course, about how such a description is formally presented. Mapping my twin world condition onto the Frankfurt scenario, we should understand Joness action E to be congruent across W1 and W2. in 1952 and an LL.B. One possible way to introduce nuclear weapons to the world -- which may particularly appeal to those who consider nuclear bombs primarily as a secret weapon developed to help with the present war -- is to use them without warning on appropriately selected objects in Japan. An Analysis Of Ralph Waldo Emerson`s `Self-Reliance` - GraduateWay Harry Frankfurt describes the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) as follows: A person is morally responsible for what he has done only if he could have done otherwise (Frankfurt 1969, p.829; emphasis added). Fischer, J. M., & Ravizza, M. (1991). It has been suggested that a compulsory denaturation of pure fissionable isotopes may be agreed uponby diluting them, after production, with suitable isotopes to make them useless for military purposes, while retaining their usefulness for power engines. No paper agreement can be sufficient since neither this or any other nation can stake its whole existence on trust in other nations' signatures. Russia and China are the only great nations at present which could survive a nuclear attack. What is collective representation? Explain the "Frankfurt case" of Jones & Black argument against PAP. Thus, from the "optimistic" point of view -- looking forward to an international agreement on the prevention of nuclear warfare -- the military advantages and the saving of American lives achieved by the sudden use of atomic bombs against Japan may be outweighed by the ensuing loss of confidence and by a wave of horror and repulsion sweeping over the rest of the world and perhaps even dividing public opinion at home. If this is the case, then we are in a position that is ultimately no different to the original formulation of PAP in which it is necessary that the subject could have done otherwise. However, it need not prevent the production of radioactive elements on a scale sufficient to revolutionize the industrial, scientific and technical use of these materials, and would thus not eliminate the main benefits which nucleonics promises to bring to mankind. Our cities today are certainly still not perfect, and likely both architects would have been disappointedbut the pair nevertheless set a foundation for discourse (and public debate) that continues to influence city planning and architecture today. It must be pointed out that in this field we are in a less favorable position than nations which are now more diffusely populated and either whose industries are more scattered, or whose governments have unlimited power over the movement of population and the location of industrial plants. If no choice of targets, with a total area of five hundred square miles of American territory, contains a large enough fraction of the nation's industry and population to make their destruction a crippling blow to the nation's war potential and its ability to defend itself, then the attack will not pay, and may not be undertaken. Because of this, the original formulation of PAP is unnecessary. Young, G. (2007). Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Dennett's Luther Argument ("character examples"). I It is generally agreed that a person who has been coerced to do something did not do it freely and is not morally responsible for having done it. All present plans for the organization of research, scientific and industrial development, and publication in the field of nucleonics are conditioned by the political and military climate in which one expects those plans to be carried out. PDF IN THE Supreme Court of the United States He may have also been fueled by heroic amounts of . Therefore, only lacks of mutual trust, and not lack of desire for agreement, can stand in the path of an efficient agreement for the prevention of nuclear warfare. , tions that representatives take on the basis of their party caucuses An Overview of Sigmund Freud's Theories - Verywell Mind I conclude with the claim that neither the amended PAP nor the twin world condition is necessary for the ascription of moral responsibility; rather, what is necessary is simply that one of these conditions is satisfied. In: J. E. Tomberlin (Ed. Which claim is best supported by the evidence included in these maps-, Nationalistic movements influenced the borders in Europe at the end of World War I, The Balkans were referred to as the' "Powder keg of Europe" in the period before WWI because of their-, Blamed jews for Germany's loss of World War I, The Nuremberg Laws were written in order to, What is an immediate result of these laws enacted by the Nazi Party--, German Jews were stripped of personal liberties and property rights, Between which two years did the number of collective farms increase the most, Which of the following events was a result of the policy illustrated in the chart-, Which claim can best be supported by this passage-, New technology made warfare more destructive, Which of the following is a result of the historical trend present in the passage-, What implications is the author trying to make in the excerpt-, the Japanese militaristic culture fostered a dehumanization Chinese civilians lives, Which best helps explain the passage in its broader historical context-, The consequences of total war tactics on civilian populations, The example of mass atrocity and genocide introduced in the passage is most similar to which of the following examples, The allied forces firebombing of German cities like Hamburg or Dresden killing thousands, Social Studies American History: Reconstruction to the Present Guided Reading Workbook. This poster appeals to the US citizens by linking-, The World War II military action shown on Map 2 was significant because it-, forced Germany to fight the allies on eastern and western fronts, Using both maps and your historical knowledge, how do the maps exemplify one reason there is Soviet resentment towards the allies after World War II, the original allied strategy led to a significant number of soviet casualties despite soveit urging to spit German forces on two bonds, THE INDIVIDUAL TO SERVE THE NEEDS OF THE STATE, Fascist rule in italy under Mussolini was popular because it-, Promised a strong, confident government powers to the lower classes, who had been oppressed for centuries, How was Bolshevik Revolution in Russia similar to the rise of fascism in Germany and Italy-, Justify the use of nuclear weapons against Japanese cities with large civilian populations-, Japanese government propaganda instilled fierce, suicidal, nationalism in the Japanese population, making japan unlikely to surrender unconditionally without experiencing the effects of nuclear weapons, Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their problem-. Issues of the Constitutional Convention - George Washington's Mount Vernon If in this way, check is kept on the conversion of uranium and thorium ore into pure fissionable materials, the question arises as to how to prevent accumulation of large quantities of such materials in the hands of one or several nations. Answer: Explanation: Background In 1938, a small group of German scientists accidentally discovered nuclear fission. Csar Franck Biography, Songs, & Albums | AllMusic Such a limitation would have the drawback of making impossible also the development of nuclear power for peacetime purposes. Correspondence to The legitimacy of Frankfurts challenge to PAP as necessary for the ascription of moral responsibility has been debated extensively over the years. After this, it might take other nations three or four years to overcome our present head start, and eight or ten years to draw even with us if we continue to do intensive work in this field. In the absence of an international authority which would make all resort to force in international conflicts impossible, nations could still be diverted from a path which must lead to total mutual destruction, by a specific international agreement barring a nuclear armaments race. Which of the following arguments would a supporter of using nuclear (1954) and S.J.d. The necessity of some role for alternate possibilities does not, however, in and of itself, make necessary the clause that S (or whoever) could have done otherwise. Professor Franck the universe, morality, well-ordered laws of nature, etc.). Obviously believing his adversarys ideas to be impractical and beneficial only to the wealthy, Wright criticizes Le Corbusiers housing towers further, asserting [t]here is no life in them. Google Scholar. In case chances for the establishment of an effective international control of nuclear weapons should have to be considered slight at the present time, then not only the use of these weapons against Japan, but even their early demonstration, may be contrary to the interests of this country. In 1932, both described these ideas in The New York Times; in these two articles Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier made their differing beliefs perfectly clear to the public. As is well documented, this scenario led Frankfurt to conclude that PAP is false because, intuitively, we want to assign moral responsibility to Jones in this situation even though clauses (a) and/or (b) are not met and so he could not have done otherwise: a necessary condition for moral responsibility under the original PAP. A This is a difficult problem, but we think it soluble. Question 38 options: The events in this chart that took place in 1933 led to which of the following in Germany. At present, it may be that atomic bombs can be detonated with an effect equal to that of 20,000 tons of TNT. We are fully aware of the staggering difficulties involved in such a radical change in the social and economic structure of our nation. 24 The Empowered Self, at 265-267. Alternate possibilities and moral responsibility. Thus, if the prospects of an agreement will be considered poor in the immediate future, the pros and cons of an early revelation of our possession of nuclear weapons to the world -- not only by their actual use against Japan, but also by a prearranged demonstration -- must be carefully weighed by the supreme political and military leadership of the country, and the decisions should not be left to the considerations of military tactics alone. By insisting on either of these conditions for the ascription of moral responsibility, we also preserve some role for alternate possibilities, thereby making it necessary that they feature in our moral decision making in some form or other. Zagzebski, L. (2000). The key aspect of this solution he termed autostrades, elevated motorways 16 feet (4.8 meters) above the pedestrian domain on the ground. Csar Franck was born in Belgium but established his career as a composer, organist, and influential teacher in France, most prestigiously at the Paris Conservatoire and at the church of Sainte-Clotilde. Robinson, M. (2012). [18] Inherent within each of the aforementioned sufficient conditions is a role for alternate possibilities. Within ten years other countries may have nuclear bombs, each of which, weighing less than a ton, could destroy an urban area of more than ten square miles. The answer is that all that these advantages can give us is the accumulation of a larger number of bigger and better atomic bombs. It requires study by statesmen and international lawyers, and we can offer only some preliminary suggestions for such a study. Janzen, G. (2013). Where neither is satisfied then S is not morally responsible for performing E. Frankfurt-style scenarios illustrate the condition under which PAP(s) is not satisfied. Where S is coerced into doing E, for example, we would not want to say that S is morally responsible, especially where the coercion is such that it eliminates all morally acceptable alternatives. His SOD is not effective/ makes little difference and is a slave to his passions. What is Kane's "Indeterministic worlds" objection to the FF case? The manner in which alternate possibilities are presented differs, though, within each of the sufficient conditions discussed. On the other hand, neither did Wright succeed in his wishes to rid our cities of skyscrapers and landlords (and in fact proposed his own mile-high skyscraper two decades later.) Oxford: Blackwell. "He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.". Example 1. Russia is known to be mining radium on its own territory; and even if we do not know the size of the deposits discovered so far in the USSR, the probability that no large reserves of uranium will be found in a country which covers one-fifth of the land area of the earth (and whose sphere of influence takes in additional territory) is too small to serve as a basis for security. The Founders agreed that all personsnot just citizensmust be included in the representation base for members of Congress. Much more favorable conditions for the eventual achievement of such an agreement could be created if nuclear bombs were first revealed to the world by a demonstration in an appropriately selected uninhabited area. In 2005, world leaders formally adopted the Responsibility to Protect [R2P]the duty to intervene in when national governments fail to fulfill their r Reasons reactivity and incompatibilist intuitions. Certainly, the could have done otherwise clause is indicative of one role for alternate possibilities (perhaps the most obvious): namely, making available other options at a given time. I argue that PAP does not need to be endorsed as a necessary condition for moral responsibility and, in fact, presenting PAP as a sufficient condition maintains its usefulness as a maxim for moral accountability whilst avoiding Frankfurt-style counter-examples. Moreover, PAP as a sufficient condition hereafter PAP(s) has the advantage of being able to withstand Frankfurt-style counter-examples without, I contend, losing its efficacy as a maxim for moral responsibility. A person that can only act on strongest desire at the time. Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their position? 22 Ibid, at 124, 126-127. When Frank Lloyd Wright and Le Corbusier Had a Public Argument in The New York Times, All rights reserved. The interview captured many facets of Piaget's remarkable career: his roots in epistemology and natural history; his interests in the underlying processes of . Where this is not the cases, as expressed within (3) then we must conclude that intervention has occurred in W1, thereby explaining the incongruence across worlds. All of us, familiar with the present state of nucleonics, live with the vision before our eyes of sudden destruction visited on our own country, of a Pearl Harbor disaster repeated in thousand-fold magnification in every one of our major cities. From this point of view, a demonstration of the new weapon might best be made, before the eyes of representatives of all the United Nations, on the desert or a barren island. After such a demonstration the weapon might perhaps be used against Japan if the sanction of the United Nations (and if public opinion at home) were obtained, perhaps after a preliminary ultimatum to Japan to surrender or at least to evacuate certain regions as an alternative to their total destruction. Why Frankfurt-examples dont need to succeed to succeed. Complete the sentence in a way that shows you understand the meaning of the italicized vocabulary word. is wrong with it, and describe briefly and without argument how it might appropriately be revised. Current technology, in fact, seems to be moving away from the standardization Le Corbusier hoped for and closer to the personalization and customization championed by Wright in his article. In other words, there is nothing to be lost in terms of our commitment to understanding the conditions for moral accountability by treating PAP as a sufficient condition, but much to be gained: for not only is PAP(s) impervious to Frankfurt-style counter-examples (as noted) but, perhaps more importantly, it opens up debate on what other factors are likewise sufficient for moral responsibility as the Frankfurt-style scenarios seem to indicate and which, if any, is necessary. Just because a potential enemy will be afraid of being "outnumbered and outgunned," the temptation for him may be overwhelming to attempt a sudden unprovoked blow -- particularly if he should suspect us of harboring aggressive intentions against his security or his sphere of influence. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 80(2), 440446. AP World History (AP Classroom) Questions U8 Flashcards In the scenario above, involving Jones and the counterfactual intervener, Black or even in similar Frankfurt-style scenarios arguably clauses (a) and (b) are violated. Principle of Alternative Possibilities (PAP). Wrights ideas, instead, focus on decentralization, writing that we have plenty of space and that skyscrapers are unnecessary except to the landlords who charge rent. The aim of this paper is to present a version of the principle of alternate possibilities (PAP) which is not susceptible to the Frankfurt-style counter-example. (b) What conflict does this decision set up between the father and mother? The Convention held no fewer than 60 votes before the delegates agreed upon the Electoral College as the method of selecting the president. The metaphysics of free will. 119137). The Philosophical Review, 104(2), 247261. In R. Kane (Ed. In short, where the conditions inherent within both PAP(s) and Frankfurts original PAP are met namely, clauses (a) and (b) then PAP(s), as a maxim for moral accountability, is as effective as PAP at ascribing moral responsibility. In addition, I provide a further sufficient condition for moral responsibility the twin world condition and argue that this provides a means of justifying why the protagonist in Frankfurt-style scenarios (e.g., Jones) is still felt to be morally responsible. What are they supposed to show, according to Dennett? (1959) from Harvard University, and in 1995 was awarded an LL.d. It must be stressed that if one takes the pessimistic point of view and discounts the possibility of an effective international control over nuclear weapons at the present time, then the advisability of an early use of nuclear bombs against Japan becomes even more doubtful -- quite independently of any humanitarian considerations. Philosophia 44, 961969 (2016). b) Nuclear bombs cannot possibly remain a "secret weapon" at the exclusive disposal of this country for more than a few years. England, France and the smaller nations of the European continent, with their congeries of people and industries would be in a particularly desperate situation in the face of such a threat. Again, S fails to satisfy PAP(s) and the twin world condition, and so is not morally responsible for E, even though E is a good thing to have done in this case. An example of this would be a form of Sophies choice whereby S is ordered at gun point to kill one of his two children. But not by verticality.. Therefore, an international agreement is necessary to ensure that nuclear weapons are only used for deterrence purposes and never deployed in a conflict. What is the point of the cult-man objection? While weve yet to see cars hurtling by unimpeded 16 feet above ground as Le Corbusier wished, various methods of separating cars from pedestrians have been attempted in cities around the world. The id is entirely unconscious, while the ego operates in the conscious mind. The Federalist was originally planned to be a series of essays for publication in New York City newspapers, but ultimately expanded into a collection of 85 essays, which were published as two volumes in March and May 1788. We have large accumulations of poison gas, but do not use them, and recent polls have shown that public opinion in this country would disapprove of such a use even if it would accelerate the winning of the Far Eastern war. Given mutual trust and willingness on all sides to give up a certain part of their sovereign rights, by admitting international control of certain phases of national economy, the control could be exercised (alternatively or simultaneously) on two different levels. Can you cite any examples where R2P has been or should be implemented? In the war to which such an armaments race is likely to lead, the United States, with its agglomeration of population and industry in comparatively few metropolitan districts, will be at a disadvantage compared to nations whose populations and industry are scattered over large areas. Including a soundproof, well-lit living room and a double-faade of glass to control the effects of outside temperature, Le Corbusiers habitable towers were to include at least twelve dwelling floors each and accommodate 1,000 people per hectare (2.47 acres). June 14, 2022 . He received the National Book Foundation's 5 Under 35 Award for his story collection Third Class Superhero, and was a finalist for the PEN Center USA Literary Award. Third parties help bridge the gap between state and federal legislators. Most arguments for God's existence start from something we observe in the world that logically infer God as the cause of these observable effects (e.g. Which of the following arguments would a supporter of using nuclear weapons against Japan have most likely cited to explain the limitations of Franck's arguments in the first and second paragraphs? Our possibilities of retaliation -- even if retaliation should be considered adequate compensation for the loss of millions of lives and destruction of our largest cities -- will be greatly handicapped because we must rely on aerial transportation of the bombs, and also because we may have to deal with an enemy whose industry and population are dispersed over a large territory. There is only rent., Stating that Broadacre City is the only democratic form for a city due to its systematic integration of individual units, Wright embraces the existing highway system. Third parties shift voters' attention away from major-party candidates. 6 B. ProStarSolar > Blog Classic > Uncategorized > contemporaries who agreed with franck's argument. To explain: despite being unable to do otherwise (and so failing to satisfy PAP(s)), if Jones (or S or whoever) is still said to be morally responsibly in virtue of his actions congruence with what his action would have been in a world with alternate possibilities (namely, W2) then this means that we are still reliant on alternate possibilities in some form to justify our moral pronouncements. ), Free will (pp. Why deck or double-deck or triple-deck the city streets at a cost of billions of dollars, only to invite increase and meet inevitable defeat? Wright asks of Le Corbusiers autostrades. It seems that we have not escaped the need for alternate possibilities, thereby making alternate possibilities necessary. Le Corbusiers opinions of technology during his time continue to ring eerily true today. For the ascription of moral responsibility, it is my contention that it is not necessary that S could have done otherwise, as required by PAP in its original formulation. here our team solve your academic problems daily. Neither architect lived to see their vision come true, but both were right about some aspects of their future, todays present. All are principals. In this sense, it is more akin to the clause if it were the case rather than given that it is. ), Philosophical perspectives, 14, Action and Freedom: A Supplement to Nos, (pp. In contrast once again to Le Corbusier, Wright predicts that [t]he traffic problem will be solved as architecture. Can and Should Human Rights Be Universal? - E-International Relations The aims of this paper is to argue that, as a maxim for moral responsibility, endorsing PAP as a sufficient condition is as effective as presenting it as a necessary condition. German scientists, in whose discoveries the whole development of this field originated, apparently did not develop it during the war to the same extent to which this has been done in America: but to the last day of the European war, we were living in constant apprehension as to their possible achievements. A. Instead, the role played by alternative possibilities in the twin world condition is more subjunctive, insofar as what is described is a possibility rather than an actuality. s the chief of staff. Never mentioning Le Corbusier by name, Wright nonetheless references his contemporarys argument by using Le Corbusiers terms and ideas directly and responding (unfavorably) to them, but The Times introduction makes the connection to the earlier article by Le Corbusier perfectly clear, describing Wrights ideas as diametrically opposed to Le Corbusiers.
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